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Politics from Greek : Πολιτικάpolitiká'affairs of the cities' is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groupsor other forms of power relations between individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.
It may be used positively in the context of a "political solution" which is compromising and non-violent, [1] or descriptively as "the art or science of government", but also often carries a negative connotation.
A variety of methods power system protection phd thesis deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making lawsand exercising forceincluding warfare against adversaries.
In modern nation statespeople often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society.
The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato 's Republic and Aristotle 's Politics in the West, and Confucius 's political manuscripts and Chanakya 's Arthashastra and Chanakya Niti in the East. The English politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle 's classic work, Politikáwhich introduced the Greek term politiká Πολιτικά'affairs of the cities'.
In the midth century, Aristotle's composition would be rendered in Early Modern English as Polettiques [ sic ], [a] [10] which would become Politics in Modern English. The singular politic first attested in English incoming from Middle French politique —itself taking from politicus[11] a Power system protection phd thesis of the Greek πολιτικός politikos from πολίτης polites'citizen' and πόλις polis'city'.
Politics comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies, whereby people go about organizing the use, production or distribution of human, natural and other resources in the course of the production and reproduction of their biological and social life. Adrian Leftwich has differentiated views of politics based on how extensive or limited their perception of what accounts as 'political' is. For example, power system protection phd thesis, in a more restrictive way, politics may be viewed as primarily about governance[19] while a feminist perspective could argue that sites which have been viewed traditionally as non-political, should indeed be viewed as political as well.
Instead, politics may be defined by the use of power, as has been argued by Robert A. Some perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while others see it as a social function with a normative basis. Politics is politics and other forms of rule are something else. Agonism argues that politics essentially comes down to conflict between conflicting interests. Political scientist Elmer Schattschneider argued that "at the root of all politics is the universal language of conflict," [27] while for Carl Schmitt the essence of politics is the distinction of 'friend' from foe'.
However, a more mixed view between these extremes is provided by Irish political scientist Michael Laver, power system protection phd thesis, who noted that:. Politics is about the characteristic blend of conflict and co-operation that can be found so often in human interactions. Pure conflict is war. Pure co-operation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both. The history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of government.
Frans de Waal argued that already chimpanzees engage in politics through "social manipulation to secure and maintain influential positions. In ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states have today, and their borders could be more accurately described as frontiers. Early dynastic Sumerand early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their borders.
Moreover, power system protection phd thesis, up to the 12th century, many people lived in non-state societies, power system protection phd thesis. These range from relatively egalitarian bands and tribes to complex and highly stratified chiefdoms. There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state power system protection phd thesis that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.
Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesiswhich contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.
Conflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states.
Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation. The first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egyptwhich arose from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively around approximately BCE.
Although state-forms existed before the rise of the Ancient Greek empire, the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, power system protection phd thesis, and to have power system protection phd thesis analyzed political institutions.
Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths. Several important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states polis and the Roman Republic.
The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population; in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history. The Peace of Westphalia is considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system, [38] [39] [40] in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs.
The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The "Westphalian" doctrine of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th century thought of nationalismunder which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations —groups of people united by language and culture.
In Europeduring the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multinational empires : the Austrian EmpireKingdom of FranceKingdom of Hungary[44] the Russian Empirethe Spanish Empirethe Ottoman Empireand the British Power system protection phd thesis. Such empires also existed in Asia, Africa, and the Americas; in the Muslim worldimmediately after the death of Muhammad inCaliphates were established, which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.
The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.
Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. A few of the smaller states survived, such as the independent principalities of LiechtensteinAndorraMonacoand the republic of San Marino.
Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacyand mass media.
However, historians [ who? Some nation states, such as Germany and Italycame into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalistsduring the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs unionthe Zollverein.
National self-determination was a key aspect of United States President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Pointsleading to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the First World Warwhile the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War. Decolonization lead to the creation of new nation states in place of multinational empires in the Third World, power system protection phd thesis.
Political globalization began in the 20th century through intergovernmental organizations and supranational unions.
Power system protection phd thesis League of Nations was founded after World War Iand after World War II it was replaced by the United Nations. Various international treaties have been signed through it. Regional integration has been pursued by the African UnionASEANthe European Unionand Mercosur. International political institutions on the international level include the International Criminal Courtthe International Monetary Fundand the World Trade Organization. The study of politics is called political scienceor politology.
It comprises numerous subfields, including comparative politicspolitical economyinternational relationspolitical philosophypublic administrationpublic policygender and politicsand political methodology.
Comparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutionspolitical actors, legislature and associated fields, all of them from an intrastate perspective. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political philosophy is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychologysocial researchand cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivisminterpretivismrational choice theorybehavioralismstructuralismpost-structuralismrealisminstitutionalismand pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciencespower system protection phd thesis, uses methods and techniques that power system protection phd thesis to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysiscase studiesexperimental researchand model building.
The political system defines the process for making official government power system protection phd thesis. It is usually compared to the legal systemeconomic systemcultural systempower system protection phd thesis, and other social systems.
According to David Easton"A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society. The interactions between different political systems are the basis for global politics.
Forms of government can be classified by several ways. In terms of the structure of powerthere are monarchies including constitutional monarchies and republics usually presidentialsemi-presidentialor parliamentary. The separation of powers describes the degree of horizontal integration between the legislaturethe executivethe judiciaryand other independent institutions.
The source of power determines the difference between democraciesoligarchiesand autocracies. In a democracy, political legitimacy is based on popular sovereignty. Forms of democracy include representative democracydirect democracyand demarchy. These are separated by the way decisions are made, whether by elected representatives, referendumspower system protection phd thesis by citizen juries. Democracies can be either republics or constitutional monarchies.
Oligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules. These may be in the form of anocracyaristocracyergatocracygeniocracygerontocracykakistocracykleptocracymeritocracynoocracyparticracyplutocracystratocracytechnocracytheocracyor timocracy.
Autocracies are either dictatorships including military dictatorships or absolute monarchies. In terms of level of vertical integration, political systems can be divided into from least to most integrated confederationsfederationsand unitary states. A federation also known as a federal state is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government federalism.
In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states power system protection phd thesis the federal political body.
Federations were formed first in Switzerland, then in the United States inin Canada in and in Germany in and inAustralia. Compared to a federationa confederation has less centralized power. All the above forms of government are variations of the same basic politythe sovereign state. The state has been defined by Max Weber as a political entity that has monopoly on violence within its territory, while the Montevideo Convention holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations, power system protection phd thesis.
A stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state. While stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state.
In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them. Some political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved.
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, time: 30:44Politics - Wikipedia
The Laboratory of Intelligent Systems directed by Prof. Dario Floreano explores future avenues of artificial intelligence and robotics at the convergence of biology and engineering, humans and machines Politics (from Greek: Πολιτικά, politiká, 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations between individuals, such as the distribution of resources or blogger.com branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science Oct 14, · 22 Best Sustainable and Renewable Energy Colleges 1. Penn State World Campus (University Park, PA) With over years of experience providing distance education, the online programs through Penn State World Campus have the reputation of being as dynamic and beneficial as any on campus class
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