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Machiavelli, Niccolò | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch [1] of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, philosophy 101 assignment with the, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior ". Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evilphilosophy 101 assignment with the, right and wrongvirtue and vicejustice and crime.
As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychologydescriptive ethicsand value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are: [2]. The English word ethics is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós ἠθικόςmeaning "relating to one's character", which itself comes from the root word êthos ἦθος meaning "character, moral nature".
Rushworth Kidder states that "standard definitions of ethics have typically included such phrases as 'the science of the ideal human character' or 'the science of moral duty' ".
and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, philosophy 101 assignment with the, group or individual.
The word ethics in English refers to several things. As the English moral philosopher Bernard Williams writes, attempting to explain moral philosophy: "What makes an inquiry a philosophical one is reflective generality and a style of argument that claims to be rationally persuasive. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written: "Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values and direct our actions in terms of such valuesis a generic human capacity.
Meta-ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong.
A meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, "Is it ever possible to have a secure knowledge of what is right and wrong? Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics. For example, Aristotle implies that less precise knowledge is possible in ethics than in other spheres of inquiry, and he regards ethical knowledge as depending upon habit and acculturation in a way that makes it distinctive from other kinds of knowledge.
Meta-ethics is also important in G. Moore 's Principia Ethica from In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his open-question argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism ; these, respectively, take descriptive and non-descriptive approaches to moral goodness or value.
Non-cognitivism is the view that when we judge something as morally right or wrong, this is neither true nor false. We may, for example, be only expressing our emotional feelings about these things. The ontology of ethics is about value -bearing things or properties, that is, the kind of things or stuff referred to by ethical propositions, philosophy 101 assignment with the.
Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists believe that ethics does not need a specific ontology since ethical propositions do not refer. Philosophy 101 assignment with the is known as an anti-realist position. Realists, on the other hand, must explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, how they have value, and why they guide and motivate our actions.
Moral skepticism or moral scepticism is a class of metaethical theories in which all members entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Philosophy 101 assignment with the skepticism is particularly against moral realism which holds the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths. Some proponents of moral skepticism include PyrrhoAenesidemusSextus EmpiricusDavid HumeMax StirnerFriedrich Nietzscheand J.
Epistemological moral skepticism is a subclass of theory, the members of which include Pyrrhonian moral skepticism and dogmatic moral skepticism. All members of epistemological moral skepticism share two things: first, they acknowledge that we are unjustified in believing any moral claim, and second, philosophy 101 assignment with the, they are agnostic on whether i is true i.
on whether all moral claims are false. Noncognitivism holds that we can never know that any moral claim is true because moral claims are incapable of being true or false they are not truth-apt.
Instead, moral claims are imperatives e. Normative ethics is the study of ethical action. It is the branch of ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when considering how one ought to act, morally speaking. Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because normative ethics examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief, philosophy 101 assignment with the. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions philosophy 101 assignment with the the meta-ethical view called moral realismmoral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time.
Traditionally, normative ethics also known as moral theory was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions. At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and were no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but were interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence.
This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism. Virtue ethics describes the character of a moral agent as a driving force for ethical behavior, and it is used to describe the ethics of early Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotleand ancient Indian philosophers such as Valluvar. Socrates — BC was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world philosophy 101 assignment with the the condition of humankind.
In this view, knowledge bearing on human life was placed highest, while all other knowledge was secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person philosophy 101 assignment with the act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, philosophy 101 assignment with the, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty.
To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact and its context relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the results of ignorance.
If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his or her actions, he or she would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is philosophy 101 assignment with the right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he correlated knowledge with virtuehe similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.
Aristotle — BC posited an ethical system that may be termed "virtuous". In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with virtue this person will do good and be content.
Unhappiness and frustration are caused by doing wrong, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Therefore, it is imperative for philosophy 101 assignment with the to act in accordance with virtue, which is only attainable by the practice of the virtues in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealthwere only made worthwhile and of benefit when employed in the practice of the virtues. The practice of the virtues is the surest path to happiness.
Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care; emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges; and mental nature through human reason and developed potential.
Rational development was considered the most important, philosophy 101 assignment with the, as essential to philosophical self-awareness, and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral.
For example, courage is the philosophy 101 assignment with the virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, in the right way, at the right time, philosophy 101 assignment with the, for the right reason, philosophy 101 assignment with the.
Valluvar before 5th century CE keeps virtue, or aṟam dharma as he calls it, as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature.
Valluvar considered justice as a facet of aṟam. While ancient Greek philosophers such as PlatoAristotleand their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice.
In the words of V. Nedunchezhiyanjustice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud.
The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or apatheiawas of the highest value ; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental philosophy 101 assignment with the is, in essence, offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, philosophy 101 assignment with the, and therefore no freedom.
Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. Philosophy 101 assignment with the a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break.
Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to the existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God who initially gave what the person is as a person.
Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind.
Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud. Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th century in large part due to a revival of Aristotelianismand as a response to G. Anscombe 's " Modern Moral Philosophy ".
Anscombe argues that consequentialist and deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards", or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction.
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This is the best assignment writing service because it caters to your needs. You give us detailed instructions. We follow them! As a custom essay writing service, we deliver % plagiarism-free essays, case studies, book reports, and all other types of content. You can even order a Sep 24, · 1. The claims of multiculturalism. Multiculturalism is closely associated with “identity politics,” “the politics of difference,” and “the politics of recognition,” all of which share a commitment to revaluing disrespected identities and changing dominant patterns of representation and communication that marginalize certain groups (Gutmann , Taylor , Young ) Edmund Husserl: Phenomenology of Embodiment. For Husserl, the body is not an extended physical substance in contrast to a non-extended mind, but a lived “here” from which all “there’s” are “there”; a locus of distinctive sorts of sensations that can only be felt firsthand by the embodied experiencer concerned; and a coherent system of movement possibilities allowing us to
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